The History of Music Genres: Part Two: The 1950s
Part Two: The 1950s: The “Golden” Years
This is the second part of an ongoing series about the development and evolution of music genres which explores how they were affected by history. If you have not read Part One yet, it is here. Enjoy.
America and 1950s Music
The 1950s were an interesting time in the United States. The post-war prosperity was having a huge ripple effect on society as a whole as America quickly turned into a consumer-based culture. The post-war era was, as Denna Weinstein described in Rock’ n America: A Social and Cultural History, an awakening from conflict and deprivation into increasing prosperity (1). The general mood was upbeat and positive and this wastransposed into the music of the time.
Technology such as radio was commonplace but slowly being replaced by a newer medium, television. While the older 78 rpm shellac record was being replaced in favour of the cheaper 33 13 vinyl record, the smaller 45 rpm was soon to be the top choice for music listening.
Music in 1950s America, like its society, was decidedly divided. On one side there were the big three major labels, RCA, Columbia and Decca. They controlled America's music industry with a tight iron fist. The music they put out, with a few exceptions, was predominately bland and safe and very white. Most importantly, it offered no connection whatsoever to the growing population of teenagers. This demographic was looking for its music to identify with. On the other side were the independents, or indie labels. These were small, locally owned shops, run by a few people with little to no budgets or resources. They relied on local talent and word-of-month to survive. Their talent pool included a lot of black artists the majors would not sign. For most of these artists, this was their only opportunity to get a record contract and put out a record.
Early rock and roll derived from three distinct styles of music: pop, country and western and rhythm and blues. Although musically, there was some crossover, they remained separate through their audiences. Musically, these styles did not exist in a vacuum. Artists from each style frequently borrowed from one another through instruments, vocal arrangements, and song writing (2). The crossover changes were subtle enough to make each style distinctive from its counterparts. However, where these three styles diverged was through its respective target audiences. Pop and country and western catered to mostly white, middle class audiences, while rhythm and blues mostly black audiences. Cultural differences and racial segregation kept these styles separate.
It is generally agreed that rock and roll began around the mid-1950s, specifically between 1954 and 1956. There had been teasers prior to these dates. 1947 saw the release of Good Rockin Tonight by Roy Brown. In 1951, “Rocket 88” was released. Credited to Jackie Brenston and His Delta Cats, it was actually Ike Turner's band and is generally considered the first rock and roll song. 1954 saw the release of Bill Haley and His Comets’ “Rock Around the Clock”. This was the first rock and roll song to become a worldwide hit, giving a boost to rock and roll into the mainstream. Although these songs were big, they did not start the genre, they were more like an opening act. There was some interest, particularly with “Rock Around the Clock”, but even Bill Haley did not consider himself hip. The sparks that ignited the genre we know as rock and roll began with two important events, the rise of the teenager and the challenge to racial views in America.
The Rise of the Teenager
Prior to the Second World War, the norm was that once a person was old enough to work, usually around 14 years old, they found a job in order to help support their family. This was particularly prevalent during the war years to replace men who had gone to war. After the Second World War, the post-war prosperity experienced in the U.S. allowed a new demographic, the teenager to be free from the burdens of family support and gave them a freedom that had never been seen before. The teenager was about to become an unstoppable force.
The teenager became a culture unto its own. Teenagers talked a certain way, dressed a certain way and had their own social conventions. Like any other culture, this was all learned, from one teenager to another. Teenagers hung around other teenagers. What they did not do was hang around their parents. By the late 1940s and early 1950s, teenagers were developing their own identity. They were not dangerous per say but there was a danger element attached to them. This happened due to their growing independence their parents had not experienced. This independence was seen as rebellious therefore, a danger to society as a whole. In reality, the only danger was a blow to prevailing social norms. Teenagers developed their own sense of fashion and entertainment. This included hanging out at malt shops after school and on weekends and listening to music on jukeboxes. Jukeboxes were a staple in malt shops and were always loaded with the latest songs. Record companies would often try a new single out on jukeboxes before it was played on the radio in the hopes that teens would drop a nickel and play that song. This appears to be an early attempt to use teenagers as a monetized demographic. Jukeboxes were aimed directly at teens and it would pay off. If a teen liked the song enough and they had some extra money, they would naturally want to own the song. Jukebox plays, which were tracked by Billboard Magazine, led to more radio play which would lead to more record sales.
Records and jukebox plays were not the only thing teenagers were spending their money on. Movies were also a popular pastime and music was sometimes linked to some releases. One of the more controversial movies released in 1955 was Blackboard Jungle. The opening credits featured Bill Haley's “Rock Around the Clock” and with the themes of violence and juvenile delinquency, the movie gave most parents a link between rock and roll and rebellion they were looking for. It did not help that teens added the phrase whether you like it or not to the title. “Rock Around the Clock” rose to number one and stayed there for eight weeks giving teens a voice they were looking for and parents a reason to fear that voice. This marked the first time youth culture drove the music industry and played a huge role in the economic landscape. It was also the first time that rebellion was marketed and commodified.
Teens dropped nickels in jukeboxes to hear their favourite song, bought a copy of that song at their local record store or at least would call and request it from the local radio station and paid for their tickets at their local movie theatre which would eventually lead to tickets for concerts. Teenagers were spending money for this thing called rock and roll quickly turning it from a fad to becoming a viable and very real genre. However at the time, rock and roll was not considered a genre. The term “rock and roll” was more of a marketing label used by radio stations (particularly used and popularized by DJ Alan Freed) directed at teenagers to get them to listen to the local radio stations. In addition, a new technology was developed and made for teens and rock and roll. The transistor radio was small, inexpensive and gave teens further freedom from their parents and their music. Transistor radios allowed teens to explore their own music, particularly at night, away from judging parents. This is vital because the clearer night air allowed for a greater frequency range pulling in radio stations from outside local areas. And the music they were playing, rock and roll, was simply music that was predominantly put out by black artists that still had the unfortunate label of “race records”. It was exciting and new, as the music was mostly rhythm and blues and had a hard, driving beat. Definitely not what their parents were listening to.
America and Racism
Although I stated that times in 1950s America were interesting, it does not necessarily mean it was great. In fact, for some, this time period was not really that good at all. I spoke in the first part of this series about historical memory, where groups and cultures construct and share narratives about their past. Most times, historical memory can become clouded and some memories are emphasized over others. Once this happens, it begins to move into the territory of nostalgia. Now, nostalgia is a very powerful element when it comes to memory. I read somewhere that nostalgia is memory without the pain (3). 1950s America is a prime example of this. This period in time is generally viewed as a simpler time where things did not move so quickly and the quality of life was better. If you were a white, middle class person, life would have been pretty good. However, for anyone who did not fall under these categories, life was exceedingly more difficult.
The United States in the 1950s and particularly Southern states followed state and local laws which strictly enforced racial segregation. Although Northern states did not adhere as strictly to these laws, segregated neighbourhoods existed because segregated schools existed (4). Oddly enough, while white Americans were fighting for freedom from Communism, Russia, or the U.S.S.R. as it was known back then, highly criticized the United States for its treatment of its black citizens (5). In some parts of the U.S., certain groups attempted to link the early civil rights movements to Communism (6).
Music and Racism
Of course, this racism extended to black musicians and artists. In my earlier post The History of Music Genres Part One, I explained that up until 1947, music by black artists was labeled race music. The name was changed to Rhythm and Blues or R&B by Billboard editor Jerry Wexler after a number of record companies that released popular Black music stated the term race music was offensive and demeaning. Still, just because something changes its name does not mean it can be hated less. R&B was still black music put out by black artists and that was something a large amount of white people hated.
The issue was that a lot of black artists were becoming popular, even among white people. Many white people listened to artists such as Chuck Berry (who many thought was a white country artist), Little Richard, The Penguins (their hit Earth Angel crossed racial borders) and Fats Domino (in certain markets) without knowing at first they were black. Radio stations would play many of these artists and only pull the songs once they realized the artists were actually black. White people listening to black music was seen as dangerous and the major record labels circumvented this issue and still managed to make money in the most ridiculous way possible. They had their white artists cover black songs with safe, boring white versions that did not seem threatening at all. In most cases, the cover both did better than the original on the charts and completely whitewashed the original artists. Since it was a cover version, none of the original black artists made any money from the white versions.
The 1950s saw the emergence of group classifications within music. While this was not a new concept, the idea of group-based genres became more visible. Teenagers were getting into rock and roll and by extension R&B. Naturally opposed to this new music, white middle class people stayed with the safe, familiar, adult-oriented music pop music. Southern whites in rural areas listened to regional country and rockabilly. Black urban audiences were into R&B. The college crowd and urban intellectuals were heavy into the jazz scene. This is significant because this is the decade that saw the music industry, media and the public consciously focus and market toward demographics such as age, race, class and region.
Music and Money
Although the existing genres such as country, pop, and to a smaller extent jazz were dominating culture, rock and roll was gaining a strong foothold. Initially seen (and hoped) as a fad, teenagers were leading the way in helping rock and roll become more than a flash in the pan. Beginning with small independent radio stations with a sizable black urban audience, started to program more R&B music. Young white teenagers, hearing this music, would rush out to the record stores to buy the records. The increase in record sales forced many reluctant radio stations to start playing R&B music as economic windfall took over any personal resistance to the music (7).
As the list of radio stations that began to play R&B music started to grow, the disc jockey or DJ became a cultural force in the popularization of rock and roll. Although the DJ had been around for decades, it can be said that without them championing this music, early rock and roll would have not had the same impact. Arguably the most popular DJ to do this was Cleveland's Alan Freed. Initially a classical musician, he saw a group of teenagers purchasing R&B records and started an after-school R&B show called Alan Freed's Moon Dog Rock and Roll House Party. His show gained in popularity, was syndicated to other stations, which in turn encouraged other stations to have other white DJs promote R&B and early rock and roll (8). Although Freed did not invent the term rock and roll, it certainly can be successfully argued that he popularized it.
The Beginning and End of Rock and Roll
By the mid 1950s R&B and early rock and roll had become virtually inseparable. Rock and roll in the 1950s had two distinct eras that defined early rock and roll as we now know. The first generation of classic rocker remained close to its roots with R&B musicians such as Fats Domino, Chuck Berry, and Little Richard and country musicians such as Bill Haley. They laid the foundation for one of music's most loved and enduring genres. The second generation, with artists such as Elvis Presley, Jerry Lee Lewis, Buddy Holly and the Everly Brothers, this new generation of rockers would solidify rock and roll and completely dismiss any idea that this was nothing more than a passing fad.
The two generations described above can aptly be described as the golden age of rock and roll, and by 1959, it was over. Elvis Presley had been drafted into the United States army to help counter his bad -boy image. Little Richard, a gospel singer turned rocker, found God and abandoned rock and roll. Jerry Lee Lewis married his 13 year-old third cousin and virtually ended his career. Buddy Holly, along with Richie Valens and J.P. Richardson (the Big Bopper) died in a plane crash in 1959. The Everly Brothers and Fats Domino continued to perform, but not to the previous success of their earlier years.
The 1950s and rock and roll, which began with a bang, ended with a whimper. By 1959, the era of the teen idol had firmly taken hold. This tepid, water down version of rock and roll was a direct response to the previous years of rebellion. Record labels began releasing and marketing music sung by clean-cut, non-threatening, white young men and aimed at teenage girls. Fueled by soft love ballads and carefully crafted images, these teen idols represented music that even a teenagers parents might enjoy.
More to come…
Despite the blanching of early rock and roll, the end of the 1950s also saw the beginnings of music genres we will explore later. By the late 1950s, early folk was setting the stage for a 1960s breakout. Soul also has an emergence which hits its stride by the next decade and the producer becomes a star, moving from engineers to essential elements that shaped music in the coming decades. All of this and more will be explored in coming articles.
Sources:
1. Weinsteen, Deena, Rock’ n America: A Social and Cultural History,( Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2015).
2. Queens University, Rockin Out With Additional Information, Custom Edition for Queens University, (Boston: Pearson Learning Solutions, 2007), 39-40.
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